Alexander the Great

Alexander III of Macedon, better known as Alexander the Great, was born in 356 BC and ruled the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon from 336 BC until his death in 323 BC. The son of King Philip II and his fourth wife, Olympias, he took the throne at age twenty after his father was assassinated. For most of his reign, he led a massive military campaign across Asia and Egypt, building an empire that stretched from Greece to northwestern India by the time he turned thirty. He never lost a battle and is regarded as one of history's finest military commanders.

Born in Pella, Macedon, Alexander studied under the philosopher Aristotle until he was sixteen. In 335 BC, soon after becoming king, he campaigned in the Balkans, reasserting control over Thrace and parts of Illyria, then destroyed the city of Thebes. He took leadership of the League of Corinth, which his father had founded, and used that authority to launch a pan-Hellenic invasion of the Achaemenid Persian Empire in 334 BC. This began a decade of campaigns. After conquering Asia Minor and winning decisive battles at Issus and Gaugamela, he broke the Persian Empire's power, overthrew King Darius III, and took full control of it. The Macedonian Empire then stretched from the Adriatic Sea to the Indus River. Seeking to reach the "ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea," Alexander invaded India in 326 BC, defeating King Porus at the Battle of the Hydaspes. However, his troops mutinied, forcing him to turn back at the Beas River. He died in 323 BC in Babylon, Mesopotamia, which he had planned to make his capital, while returning to Greece. His death ended a planned invasion of Arabia.

After Alexander died, civil wars broke out across his empire, leading to its breakup under the Diadochi. His death marks the start of the Hellenistic period. His conquests spread Greek culture and led to cultural blending, including Greco-Buddhism and Hellenistic Judaism. He founded over twenty cities, most notably Alexandria in Egypt. Greek colonies and culture spread as far as the Indian subcontinent, and Hellenistic civilization became a major force, influencing later Roman and modern Western culture. Greek became the region's common language and remained the main language of the Byzantine Empire until its fall in 1453 AD.

Alexander became a legendary figure, often compared to Achilles, and appears in the histories and myths of both Greek and non-Greek cultures. His military successes set a standard for later commanders, and his tactics are still studied in military academies. Stories of his exploits were collected in the 3rd-century *Alexander Romance*, which, before modern times, had over a hundred versions and translations into nearly every European and Islamic language. After the Bible, it was the most popular form of European literature.

Alexander was born in Pella on the sixth day of the Greek month Hekatombaion, likely July 20, 356 BC. He was the son of Philip II of the Argead dynasty and Olympias, daughter of King Neoptolemus I of Epirus. Though Philip had several wives, Olympias was his principal wife for a time, probably because she gave birth to Alexander. Legends surround his birth: Plutarch wrote that Olympias dreamed a thunderbolt struck her womb, causing a flame that spread and died, and Philip dreamed he sealed her womb with a lion. Some thought these dreams meant Alexander's father was Zeus, or that Olympias was pregnant before marriage. Ancient writers disagreed on whether Olympias promoted the story of divine parentage. Alexander could claim descent from Heracles through Philip and from the hero Achilles through his mother's family. On the day Alexander was born, Philip was besieging Potidea, received news of a victory over Illyrian and Paeonian armies, and learned his horses had won at the Olympic Games.