Ashoka

Ashoka, often called Ashoka the Great, was the emperor of Magadha and the third ruler of the Mauryan dynasty. He reigned from around 268 BCE until his death in 232 BCE. His empire stretched across much of the Indian subcontinent, from what is now Afghanistan in the west to Bangladesh in the east, with its capital at Pataliputra. He is remembered as a patron of Buddhism who played a key role in spreading the religion throughout ancient Asia.

According to his own Edicts, in the eighth year of his rule, Ashoka conquered Kalinga through a brutal war. Afterward, he dedicated himself to promoting "dhamma," or righteous conduct, which became the central theme of these inscriptions. The edicts suggest that he gradually turned toward Buddhism in the years following the Kalinga War. Buddhist legends credit him with building many stupas, supporting the Third Buddhist council, funding Buddhist missionaries, and making generous donations to the monastic community (sangha).

For centuries, Ashoka was nearly forgotten as a historical figure. But after scholars deciphered Brahmi script sources in the 19th century, he gained a reputation as one of India’s greatest emperors. Today, the State Emblem of India is adapted from his Lion Capital, and the Ashoka Chakra, his wheel symbol, sits at the center of the national flag.

Our knowledge of Ashoka comes from his own inscriptions, other inscriptions that mention him or may date to his reign, and ancient literature—especially Buddhist texts. These sources often contradict one another, though historians have tried to reconcile them.

Ashoka’s inscriptions are the earliest surviving self-representations of imperial power in the Indian subcontinent. However, they focus almost entirely on dhamma and give little information about the Mauryan state or society. Even on dhamma, the content cannot be taken at face value. As scholar John S. Strong notes, it is sometimes useful to view these messages as propaganda from a politician aiming to present a favorable image of himself and his administration, rather than as straightforward historical records.

A few other inscriptions also mention Ashoka. For instance, the 2nd-century Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman names him. An inscription from Sirkap contains a lost word beginning with "Priyadari," which some believe is his title "Priyadarshi," written in 3rd-century BCE Aramaic, though this is uncertain. Other inscriptions, like the Sohgaura copper plate and the Mahasthan inscription, have been tentatively dated to his period by some scholars, but others disagree.

Much of what we know about Ashoka comes from Buddhist legends, which portray him as a great, ideal emperor. These texts were not written during his lifetime and were composed by Buddhist authors using stories to show the impact of their faith on him. This means historians must be cautious when using them. Modern opinions range from dismissing the legends as myth to accepting any plausible historical details.

These legends survive in many languages, including Sanskrit, Pali, Tibetan, Chinese, Burmese, Khmer, Sinhala, Thai, Lao, and Khotanese. They trace back to two main traditions: the North Indian tradition (found in Sanskrit texts like the Divyavadana and its part, the Ashokavadana, as well as Chinese sources such as A-yü wang chuan and A-yü wang ching), and the Sri Lankan tradition (found in Pali texts like the Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, Vamsatthapakasini, Buddhaghosha’s Vinaya commentary, and Samanta-pasadika).

These two traditions differ significantly. The Sri Lankan tradition highlights Ashoka’s role in convening the Third Buddhist council and sending missionaries to distant lands, including his son Mahinda to Sri Lanka. The North Indian tradition does not mention these events but includes stories not found in Sri Lankan sources, such as one about another son named Kunala. Even when they share stories, the details often diverge. For example, both the Ashokavadana and Mahavamsa say Ashoka’s empress Tishyarakshita destroyed the Bodhi Tree. In the Ashokavadana, she later realizes her mistake and heals the tree. In the Mahavamsa, she destroys it permanently, but only after a branch has been transplanted to Sri Lanka. In another shared story, both texts describe Ashoka’s failed attempt to collect a relic of the Buddha from Ramagrama. The Ashokavadana says he fails because he cannot match the devotion of the Nagas who hold it; the Mahavamsa says he fails because the Buddha destined the relic for King Dutthagamani of Sri Lanka. Through such stories, the Mahavamsa glorifies Sri Lanka as Buddhism’s new preserve.

Additional evidence comes from numismatics, sculpture, and archaeology. Ashoka’s name appears in the lists of Mauryan emperors in the various Puranas, though these texts provide no further details about him.