Moctezuma II

Moctezuma Xocoyotzin, often called Montezuma in European sources and later referred to as Moctezuma II, was the ninth ruler of the Aztec (or Mexica) Empire. His reign lasted from 1502 or 1503 until his death on 29 June 1520. Through his marriage to Queen Tlapalizquixochtzin of Ecatepec—one of his two wives—he also served as king consort of that altepetl.

The first encounters between Europeans and the indigenous civilizations of Mesoamerica happened while Moctezuma was in power. He was killed during the early phase of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, after Hernán Cortés and his men seized Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital. Under Moctezuma, the empire reached its largest extent. He expanded its territory through warfare as far south as Xoconosco in Chiapas and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and brought the Zapotec and Yopi peoples under imperial control. He also altered the earlier merit-based social system, widening the gap between the pipiltin (nobles) and the macehualtin (commoners) by banning commoners from working in the royal palaces.

After Moctezuma’s death, two other Aztec rulers followed, but their reigns were brief and the empire quickly fell apart. Historical portrayals of Moctezuma have largely been shaped by his role as the leader of a conquered nation. Spanish accounts describe him as weak-willed, superstitious, and indecisive. However, contemporary depictions among his own people are mixed: some view him as one of Mexico’s greatest leaders—a skilled conqueror who did his best to hold his nation together during a crisis—while others see him as a tyrant who sought absolute control over the empire. Accounts of his death differ, with some saying Spaniards killed him and others claiming natives did. The story of the Aztecs remains one of the most famous conquest narratives from the history of European contact with Native Americans, and Moctezuma has appeared in many works of historical fiction and popular culture.

The Classical Nahuatl pronunciation of his name is a compound of a noun meaning “lord” and a verb meaning “to frown in anger,” so it is interpreted as “he frowns like a lord” or “he who is angry in a noble manner.” His name glyph, shown in the upper left corner of an image from the Codex Mendoza, consists of a diadem on straight hair with an attached earspool, a separate nosepiece, and a speech scroll.

The Aztecs did not use regnal numbers; historians later added them to distinguish him from the first Moctezuma, called Moctezuma I. Aztec chronicles referred to him as “Moctezuma Xocoyotzin,” while the first was called “Moctezuma Ilhuicamina” or “Huehuemoteczuma” (“Old Moctezuma”). “Xocoyotzin” means “honored young one,” from “xocoyotl” (“younger son”) plus the suffix “-tzin,” added to nouns or personal names when speaking with deference.

Moctezuma II was the great-grandson of Moctezuma I through his daughter Atotoztli II and her husband Huehue Tezozómoc. According to some sources, Tezozómoc was the son of emperor Itzcóatl, making Moctezuma his great-grandson; other sources claim Tezozómoc was Chimalpopoca’s son, thus Itzcóatl’s nephew, and a lord in Ecatepec. Moctezuma was also Nezahualcóyotl’s grandson, being the son of emperor Axayácatl and one of Nezahualcóyotl’s daughters, Izelcoatzin or Xochicueyetl. Two of his uncles were Tízoc and Ahuizotl, the two previous emperors.

As was customary for Mexica nobles, Moctezuma was educated in the calmecac, the institution for noble children. He likely entered at age five, since the sons of kings began their education much earlier than others. Some sources note that as a child, Moctezuma stood out for his discipline, completing his work correctly and being devout to the Aztec religion.

By the time he became tlatoani of Mexico, Moctezuma was already a famous warrior, holding the high rank of tlacatecuhtli (lord of men) and/or tlacochcalcatl (person from the house of darts) in the Mexica military. His election was heavily influenced by his military career and his role as a priest—he was the main priest of Huitzilopochtli’s temple.

One celebrated campaign before his ascension occurred during the final stages of the conquest of Ayotlan, under Ahuizotl’s reign in the late 15th century. The campaign lasted four years, during which a group of Mexica pochteca merchants were besieged by enemy forces. The merchants were closely tied to Ahuizotl and served as military commanders and soldiers when needed. To rescue them, Ahuizotl sent Prince Moctezuma with many soldiers, though the fight was brief because the people of Ayotlan surrendered shortly after his arrival.

Around 1490, Moctezuma earned the rank of tequihua.