Manuel I Komnenos

Manuel I Komnenos (28 November 1118 – 24 September 1180) was a Byzantine emperor in the 12th century, ruling during a pivotal period for both Byzantium and the Mediterranean. His reign marked the final phase of the Komnenian restoration, a time when the empire saw a revival in military strength, economic power, and cultural life. Driven by a desire to restore Byzantium to its former status as the Mediterranean’s leading power, Manuel pursued an ambitious foreign policy. He formed alliances with Pope Adrian IV and the rising West, and launched an unsuccessful invasion of the Norman Kingdom of Sicily—the last Eastern Roman emperor to attempt reconquests in the western Mediterranean. He skillfully managed the passage of the potentially dangerous Second Crusade through his territory and established a Byzantine protectorate over the Crusader states in Outremer. In response to Muslim advances in the Holy Land, he allied with the Kingdom of Jerusalem and joined a combined invasion of Fatimid Egypt. Manuel redrew the political map of the Balkans and the eastern Mediterranean, bringing Hungary and Outremer under Byzantine influence and waging aggressive campaigns against neighbors both east and west. Late in his reign, however, his eastern gains were undermined by a serious defeat at Myriokephalon, largely due to his arrogance in attacking a well-fortified Seljuk position. Though the Byzantines recovered and Manuel secured a favorable peace with Sultan Kilij Arslan II, the battle proved to be the empire’s last failed attempt to reclaim central Anatolia from the Turks. Manuel inspired deep loyalty among his followers. His secretary, John Kinnamos, wrote a history portraying him as a hero endowed with every virtue. Influenced by his contact with western Crusaders, Manuel was also known in parts of the Latin world as “the most blessed emperor of Constantinople.” Some historians have been less admiring, arguing that his power was not his own achievement but that of the Komnenos dynasty. They also note that since Byzantine power declined sharply after his death, it is natural to look for the causes of that decline in his reign. Manuel was born on 28 November 1118 in the Purple Chamber of the Great Palace of Constantinople, earning him the title Porphyrogenitus (“born in the purple”). He was the eighth child and fourth son of Emperor John II Komnenos and Irene of Hungary. His eldest brother, Alexios, was crowned co-emperor, and in 1123, according to Niketas Choniates, John raised Manuel and his other older brothers, Andronikos and Isaac, to the rank of sebastokratores. Raised alongside his cousin Andronikos, Manuel grew close to him. He received no formal education and was trained as a soldier, accompanying his father on campaigns against the Anatolian Turks. During the unsuccessful Siege of Neocaesarea in 1140 against the Danishmendid Turks, he led his personal attendants in a counterattack that turned the tide of a battle that had been going against them. His courage impressed his father, who called him the “Saviour of the Romans,” though he also criticized his recklessness. As part of his policy toward the Crusader states, John II arranged for Manuel to marry Princess Constance of Antioch, hoping Manuel would rule a large domain including Attalia, Cyprus, Cilicia, and Antioch. The Antiochenes, while willing to swear fealty, resisted real Byzantine control. Manuel’s elder brothers, Alexios and Andronikos, died in 1142. In 1143, John II lay dying from an infected hunting wound. On his deathbed, he chose Manuel as his successor over his older surviving brother Isaac, citing Manuel’s courage and willingness to take advice, in contrast to Isaac’s temper and pride. After John died on 8 April 1143, the army acclaimed Manuel emperor. To secure his succession in Constantinople, Manuel sent the megas domestikos John Axouch ahead to arrest his brother Isaac, who lived in the Great Palace and had access to the treasury and regalia. Axouch also secured the patriarchate’s support by promising an annual 200 silver pieces to the clergy of Hagia Sophia. Manuel entered the capital in mid-August 1143 and was crowned by the new patriarch, Michael II Kourkouas. He then gave two gold pieces to every household in Constantinople and another 200 pounds of gold to the church. A few days later, with his position secure, he ordered Isaac’s release. Manuel’s first test came in 1144, when Raymond, the Crusader prince of Antioch, damaged Byzantine cities. Manuel sent a fleet under Demetrios Branas that, with the Kontostephanoi, regained lost fortifications, ravaged the land around Antioch, and destroyed Raymond’s ships.